IGNOU BA History Study Material
Source : History – eGyanKosh
IGNOU BA History Study Material in ENGLISH DOWNLOAD !
An exploration of the tumultuous history of China and Japan from the 19th to the mid-20th century, this overview examines the internal dynamics of these societies, their varied responses to the challenge of Western imperialism, and the revolutionary transformations that redefined East Asia.
Block-1: Society, Economy, and Polity
This foundational block examines the traditional structures of China in the mid-19th century, prior to the major disruptions caused by Western imperialism and internal rebellion.
- Society: Chinese society was deeply hierarchical and patriarchal, structured around Confucian values that emphasized order, filial piety, and respect for authority. The gentry, a class of scholar-officials who had passed the rigorous civil service examinations, stood at the apex of society, below the emperor. The vast majority of the population consisted of peasants, who were engaged in agriculture.
- Economy: The economy was predominantly agrarian, with intensive farming supporting a large population. While there was a sophisticated commercial network, including long-distance trade, the economy was not industrialized and its technological base had stagnated.
- Polity: The political system was a highly centralized monarchy, ruled by the Qing dynasty. The emperor held absolute power, which was exercised through a complex and extensive bureaucracy staffed by the scholar-gentry. This system, while historically effective, had become rigid and was ill-equipped to handle the unprecedented challenges of the 19th century.
Block-2: Western Imperialism
This section focuses on the aggressive expansion of Western powers into China, which shattered its traditional isolation and precipitated a long-term crisis. The primary driver was the economic and military power of the newly industrialized West, particularly Great Britain, which sought new markets and resources.
The defining events were the Opium Wars. The First Opium War (1839-42) was triggered by Britain’s illegal trade of opium to China, which it used to reverse a long-standing trade deficit. China’s comprehensive defeat resulted in the Treaty of Nanking, the first of many “unequal treaties.” These treaties forced China to cede territory (Hong Kong), open numerous “treaty ports” to foreign trade and residence, pay massive indemnities, and grant legal immunity to foreigners (extraterritoriality). This marked the beginning of a “century of humiliation” for China.
Block-3: Japan: Transition to Modernization
In stark contrast to China’s experience, this block examines Japan’s remarkably successful and rapid transformation from a feudal society into a modern industrial power. Faced with a similar threat of Western domination, symbolized by the arrival of US Commodore Matthew Perry’s “black ships” in 1853, Japan’s ruling elite chose a different path.
The Meiji Restoration (1868) was the pivotal event. A group of reform-minded samurai overthrew the centuries-old Tokugawa Shogunate and restored the emperor to power. The Meiji government then embarked on a comprehensive program of modernization, guided by the slogan “Rich country, strong army” (fukoku kyōhei). This involved:
- Political Reforms: Abolishing the feudal system and creating a centralized state with a modern bureaucracy and a constitution.
- Economic Modernization: Rapid industrialization, supported by the state, focusing on strategic industries like railways, shipbuilding, and mining.
- Social and Military Reforms: The creation of a modern conscript army and navy, and the introduction of a universal education system.
Block-4: Rebellions, Reforms, and Revolution
This section returns to China to analyze its internal responses to the dual crises of foreign imperialism and dynastic decay. The period was marked by a series of upheavals:
- Rebellions: The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) was a massive civil war initiated by a quasi-Christian movement that sought to overthrow the Qing dynasty. It resulted in the deaths of millions and devastated large parts of the country, severely weakening the Qing state.
- Reforms: The Qing court made several attempts at reform. The Self-Strengthening Movement (c. 1861-1895) aimed to adopt Western military technology and industrial knowledge while preserving traditional Confucian institutions. This was followed by the more radical Hundred Days’ Reform in 1898, which sought sweeping political and social changes but was crushed by conservatives.
- Revolution: The repeated failures of rebellion and reform convinced many that only a revolution to overthrow the Qing dynasty could save China. The Boxer Rebellion (1900), an anti-foreign uprising, ended in another humiliating defeat at the hands of an international coalition, sealing the fate of the dynasty.
Block-5: Foreign Relations
This block examines the shifting power dynamics in East Asia, particularly the interactions between China, Japan, and the Western powers. A key turning point was the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). Japan’s modern, well-equipped military decisively defeated China’s larger but outdated forces. The victory signaled Japan’s arrival as a major regional power and exposed the failure of China’s Self-Strengthening Movement. The war led to Japan acquiring Taiwan and asserting control over Korea, further intensifying the imperialist scramble for concessions in China. Japan’s successful alliance with Britain (1902) and its victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) further cemented its status as a global power.
Block-6: Post World War-I Japan
This section explores Japan’s development in the early 20th century. Japan emerged from World War I as a major beneficiary, having expanded its economic and political influence in East Asia. The 1920s, often called the period of “Taishō democracy,” saw the growth of a more liberal political culture and a vibrant urban society.
However, the period was also fraught with challenges. The global economic depression of the 1930s hit Japan hard, leading to social unrest. This instability, combined with a growing sense of nationalism and a belief in Japan’s manifest destiny to lead Asia, fueled the rise of militarism. The military gained increasing influence over the government, advocating for an aggressive, expansionist foreign policy to secure resources and markets. This led to the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and the full-scale invasion of China in 1937, setting the stage for World War II in the Pacific.
Block-7: Post-Revolutionary China, 1911-21
This block focuses on the chaotic decade following the 1911 Revolution, which finally overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. The initial optimism quickly faded as the new republic proved unable to consolidate its power.
- The Warlord Era: The country soon fragmented into a collection of territories controlled by powerful regional military leaders, or “warlords,” who fought constantly for power, plunging the nation into a prolonged state of civil war. The central government in Beijing was virtually powerless.
- The May Fourth Movement: This period of political disintegration and continued foreign encroachment culminated in the May Fourth Movement of 1919. Sparked by student protests against the Treaty of Versailles (which awarded former German territories in China to Japan), the movement evolved into a broader intellectual and cultural revolution. It was characterized by a surge in Chinese nationalism, a rejection of traditional Confucian values, and an embrace of new ideas like science, democracy, and, significantly, Marxism.
Block-8: Communist Movement in China, 1921-49
This concluding block traces the rise of the Communist Party of China (CCP), from its founding in 1921 to its ultimate victory in 1949.
- Formation and Early Years: Inspired by the Russian Revolution and the intellectual ferment of the May Fourth Movement, the CCP was founded in Shanghai. It initially formed a United Front with the more established Nationalist Party, the Kuomintang (KMT), to fight the warlords.
- The Chinese Civil War: The alliance shattered in 1927, leading to a brutal civil war between the KMT, led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the CCP, eventually led by Mao Zedong.
- The Long March and Peasant Mobilization: After being nearly wiped out, the CCP embarked on the epic Long March (1934-35) to a new base in Yan’an. Here, Mao developed his revolutionary strategy of mobilizing the peasantry, which formed the vast majority of the population.
- Victory: During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45), the CCP expanded its influence while fighting the Japanese. After the end of World War II, the civil war resumed, and the CCP, with its disciplined army and broad peasant support, decisively defeated the corrupt and demoralized KMT forces, leading to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949.